The English Civil Wars (1642–1651) had a wide-ranging and far-reaching impact. The monarchy was abolished after the execution of Charles I of England (r. 1625-1649). As Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) led the Republic. Many commoners had their lands and property confiscated, taxes were raised to unprecedented levels, and they faced death and disease like never before. Finally, the uncertainty of how to replace the monarchy spawned a spring of new groups with fresh perspectives on how to live, how to interpret the Bible, and what the obligations and responsibilities of those who governed them should be.
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