Answer:
protons against a concentration gradient.
Explanation:
Cellular respiration can be defined as a series of metabolic reactions that typically occur in cells so as to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During cellular respiration, high energy intermediates are created that can then be oxidized to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Therefore, the intermediary products are produced at the glycolysis and citric acid cycle stage.
Hence, during cellular respiration, most adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is formed as a direct result of the net movement of protons against a concentration gradient in the electron transport chain.
Additionally, mitochondria provides all the energy required in the cell by transforming energy forms through series of chemical reactions; breaking down of glucose into Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) used for providing energy for cellular activities in the body of living organisms.
Through the process of chemiosmosis, the H+ gradient is used to produce ATP molecules. During cell respiration, most ATP is formed as a direct result of the net movement of hydrogen ions down a concentration gradient.
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Let us review the oxidative phosphorylation process.
The electron transporter chain + chemiosmosis constitute the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
Chemiosimosis refers to the ATP production through a proton gradient
The electron transporter chain is a series of molecules and proteins located in the internal mitochondrial membrane. It constitutes a series of enzymatic reactions to release and save energy for the organism’s correct functioning.
Along the chain, there are four proteinic complexes in the membrane, I, II, III, and IV, that contain the electrons transporters and the enzymes necessary to catalyze the electrons' transference from one complex to the other.
Different redox reactions occur to pass electrons along the chain.
Released energy creates a proton concentration gradient used to synthesize ATP.
1) NADH provides electrons to the first complex, Complex I. From there, electrons go to the coenzyme Q that carries them to complex II. Meanwhile, complex I pomp four protons to the intermembrane space.
2) Complex II receives electrons from CoQ and also receives electrons from FADH2. Electrons are sent from complex II to ubiquinone Q that carries these electrons to complex III.
3) Complex III receives electrons from ubiquinone Q and pomps protons to the intermembrane space. Electrons are transferred to Cytochrome c.
Electrons travel from cytochrome c to complex IV.
4) Complex IV is the last complex that pomps protons to the intermembrane space.
5) Electrons are sent to O₂ molecules, which also receive protons in the matrix to create water molecules. Four electrons are needed to produce two water molecules from one O₂ molecule.
Since too many protons were pumped to the intermembrane space by complexes I, III and IV, an electrochemical gradient is created.
Protons tend to go back to the matrix, but they can only pass the membrane through an integral membrane protein.
H+ returns to the mitochondrial matrix through the ATP synthase.
While H+ passes to the matrix, ATP is produced by this Chemiosmotic process.
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