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Learning was less widespread than in Roman times and cities were in decline. Moreover roads were in disrepair and the ancient practice of barter returned to replace the Roman coinage system. Most of the Iberian peninsula, present day Spain and Portugal, remained under Muslim control. However, the expansion into Northern Europe stopped because the Franks (who led Christian forces of northern France, Belgium, and western Germany" defeated Muslims in the Battle of Tours in 732.They were not able to counteract decentralization of political, military, and economic activity in most of Western Europe. Feudalism served as a political substitute for a powerful effective central government. Economic life centered on a concern for subsistence and security, which could only be provided by the acceptance of local and rural customs and practices designed to ensure the necessities of life through resisting change and fostering self sufficiency.
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